Assessment of Young Children (2024)

Assessment of Young Children

The assessment of young children (age 0-5) should incorporate a developmental, relational, and biological perspective on the presenting symptoms and include data collected on interview, observation of dyadic or triadic interactions, as well scores on validated screening tools. This portion of the website provides more information on these considerations when assessing a young child.

Typical Development

Typical development is defined by the attainment of specific physical, cognitive, linguistic, social-emotional, and behavioral milestones that are influenced by historical, cultural, genetic and environmental factors. Developmental theory has historically embraced both the theories of continuous (slow, gradual) developmental changes and discontinuous (step-wise, and with periods of rapid growth) progression over time, while highlighting the presence of both critical and sensitive periods. A critical period is a discrete time period during which a specific function develops making it difficult or even impossible to develop these functions later in life. For example, the first five years of life are considered a particularly critical period for language acquisition. On the other hand, a sensitive period describes a time when it is easiest for children to acquire certain skills, but the onset/offset of the period is more gradual, and acquisition is not impossible following this timeframe. An example of this is that very young children readily acquire second languages when exposed. However, these same languages can certainly be learned later in life.

The assessment of a young child should be approached with these developmental lenses, where the assessor is attuned to where that child may align or stray from a typical developmental trajectory, whether the child is in a time of continuous or discontinuous change, or a critical versus sensitive period.

References:

  1. Guerra NG, Williamson AA, Lucas-Molina B. Normal development: Infancy, childhood, and adolescence. In Rey JM (ed), IACAPAP e-Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health. Geneva: International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions 2012.

Social Emotional Screening Tools for Young Children

Screening and assessing young children for social and emotional health can be quite challenging due to several factors. First of all, the child usually does not have the language skills to explain coherently what they are experiencing - rather they will communicate their problems through behavioral red flags, which, by their very nature, are non-specific. Similarly, parents may also struggle to understand and explain the difficulties they are experiencing with their children and with parenting skills. Additionally, medical, social work, or educational professionals looking to screen for emergent social-emotional challenges in early childhood may not be certain how to ask the questions. Moreover, although clinicians are generally trained extensively in assessing symptoms in an individual, fewer are familiar with the systematic evaluation of relationships between parents and children - but this is an integral part of the early childhood assessment.

Despite these challenges, accurate and efficacious screening and assessment maximizes the potential to direct young children and families to the help they need before problems have become entrenched. Standardized tools validated for the young child can assist with screening and assessing young children and the relationships with their caregivers in a reliable way. Following is a list of tools that are available and are commonly used - although not comprehensive, hopefully this can be a good starting point to help you find what you need in your work with young children!

It is useful also to assess progress across domains of development since young children are not developing social-emotional skills independent of language, cognitive, and motor development. Some useful broad range developmental questionnaires are in the final table below.

Social/emotional development screening instruments

Name of instrument

Age range

For more information

Ages and States Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ:SE)

2-60 months

Link

Baby Pediatric Symptom Checklist (BPSC)

1-18 months

Link

Brief Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA)

12-36 months

Link

Early Childhood Screening Assessment (ECSA)

18-60 months

Link

Preschool Pediatric Symptom Checklist (PPSC)

18-65 months

Link

Young Child PTSD Screen

3-6 years

Link

Early childhood mental health assessment instruments

General child symptoms/strengths

Name of instrument

Age range

For more information

Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition (BASC-3) - Preschool Forms

2-5 years

Link

Devereux Early Childhood Assessment (DECA)©

1 month - 5 years

(versions available for infant, toddler, and preschool)

Link

Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment (DIPA)

Link

Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (ITSEA)

12-36 months

Link

Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA)

2-5 years

Link

Preschool Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)©

1.5-5 years

Link

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)©

2-4 years and 4-10 years(also versions for older children)

Link

Early Childhood Mental Health Assessment tools

Specific diagnostic categories

Name of instrument

Age range

For more information

EybergChild Behavior Inventory (ECBI)

2-16 years

Link

Spence Preschool AnxietyScale

3-6 years

Link

Stutter-EybergStudent Behavior Inventory - Revised (SESBI-R)

2-16 years

Link

Young Child PTSD Checklist (YCPC)

1-6 years

Link

Assessment tools focused on the parent-child relationship

Name of instrument

Age range

For more information

Child Rearing Inventory (CRI)

3-10 years (based on initial study)

Link

Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS)©

2-7 years

Link

Modified Crowell Procedure

12-60 months

Crowell JA (2003). Assessment of attachment security in a clinical setting: Observations of parents and children. Developmental andBehaviouralPediatrics, 24:199-204

Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO)

10-47 months

Link

Parenting Stress Index (PSI)

0-12 years

Link

Parenting Stress Index - Short Form (PSI-SF)

0-12 years

Link

Working Model of the Child Interview

No specific age range

VreeswijkC, Maas J, VanBakelH (2012). Parental Representations: A Systematic Review of the Working Model of the Child Interview. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33:314-328

Tools focused on assessment of developmental milestones or delays

Name of instrument

Age range

For more information

Ages and Stages Questionnaire 3rdEdition (ASQ:3)

1 months - 5.5 years

Link

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ®, Third Edition (Bayley-III®)

1-42 months

Link

Developmental Milestones (from the Survey of Well-Being in Young Children) (SWYC)

1-65 months

Link

Psychological Testing and Developmental Assessments

Obtaining formal developmental and neuropsychological testing can be very helpful in working with very young children. Reasons for obtaining testing include: 1. To help clarify diagnostically complex and ambiguous cases, 2. To further evaluate a specific cognitive domain, 3. For educational placements and to tailor educational plans, 4. Pre-post comparisons after intervention (e.g. medication) or injury (e.g. head trauma). Developmental assessments usually are broad evaluations of various neuropsychiatric domains and can help provide a lens through which we might be better able to perceive the world from the child's perspective. Neuropsychological testing can be more specific and includes assessments of general abilities and intelligence, achievement, behavioral, social and emotional functioning, adaptive functioning, and diagnostic profiles. Particularly for young children, the conditions of the testing (environmental, psychological and physical) can have a profound impact on test scores. Furthermore, young children are rapidly developing and learning, which means that evaluation results only provide a snapshot picture of the child's current level of functioning, which may change over time. These assessments usually rely on direct assessment, incidental observation, and caregiver report.

Subspecialized clinicians usually conduct developmental and neuropsychiatric assessments. However, knowing the purpose, limitations, and strengths of developmental and neuropsychiatric assessments can be very helpful for clinicians using these evaluative findings to make diagnostic and treatment determinations.

The following are some commonly used developmental and neuropsychiatric assessments. For more information, each test developer usually has webpages with the target age, limitations, strengths, scoring, and norming samples.

Select Developmental Assessment Tools

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, 4th Edition (NBAS-4): assesses neonate's current level of neurobehavioral organization, capacity to respond to the stress of labor and delivery, and adjustment to the ex-utero environment.

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III (BSID-3)- is the most widely used measure of the development of infants and toddlers, and the most psychometrically sophisticated infant test on the market. Administration time is about 25 to 90 minutes depending on the child's age. It assesses cognition, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behaviors.

Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL)- assesses child development in five separate domains: gross motor, visual reception, fine motor, receptive language, and expressive language. Overall, reliability is acceptable to high, but normative data are two decades old, which may overestimate scores.

Resources

* Mares, S., & Graeff-Martins, A.S. (2012). The clinical assessment of infants, preschoolers and their families. In Rey JM (ed), IACAPAP e-Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health. Geneva: International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions. Available: http://iacapap.org/wp-content/uploads/A.4.-INFANT-ASSESSMENT-072012.pdf

* Gilliam, W.S., & Mayes, L.C. (2007). Clinical assessment of infants and toddlers. In A. Martin & F.R. Volkmar (Eds.), Lewis's child and adolescent psychiatry: A comprehensive textbook (4th ed.; pp. 309-322). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

Training in Early Childhood Mental Health for Psychiatrists

The ACGME requires that child and adolescent psychiatry fellows care for patients from each developmental age group, including preschool, school-age and adolescent populations. However, with school age and adolescent children constituting the majority of presentations to child and adolescent inpatient and outpatient services, accessing robust clinical experiences with the infant and early childhood (age 0-5) population in particular, can present a challenge during training. To enhance and contextualize the clinical experiences, it is also important to acquire the appropriate depth and breadth of knowledge in early childhood mental health issues in the context of a formalized curriculum.

Several academic medical centers across the United States have created more formalized training experiences in preschool mental health. This ranges from early childhood clinics within the typical 2-year CAP fellowship, to post-fellowship training extensions that provide an immersion into perinatal, infant, and early childhood patient care and literature. Rich educational experiences can also be accessed outside the department of psychiatry through interaction with community and ancillary resources (Preschools, Speech & Language Therapists, Occupational therapists), interdisciplinary medical resources (Pediatric Neurology, Developmental Pediatrics, Genetics) as well as psychological resources (Child-Parent Psychotherapists, Parent-Child Interaction Therapists) which taken together can comprise a robust, nuanced, and balanced training for the assessment and treatment of very young children.

Below are a list of academic training programs that currently have formalized experiences for training in early childhood mental health. With new curricula constantly being developed, it is likely that this list is not comprehensive, but can serve as a starting point in exploring available opportunities.

Assessment of Young Children (2024)

FAQs

What kinds of assessments are appropriate for young children? ›

Methods of child assessment can be informal (conducting natural observations, collecting data and children's work for portfolios, using educator

educator
Teacher education or teacher training refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community.
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Teacher_education
and teacher ratings) and formal (using assessment tools such as questionnaires and standardized testing).

What is the assessment of the child? ›

Ongoing Child Assessment is a process in which the teaching staff systematically observe and record information about the child's level of development and/or knowledge, skills, and attitudes; in order to determine what has been learned, improve teaching, and support children's progress.

What are the 4 types of assessment? ›

A Guide to Types of Assessment: Diagnostic, Formative, Interim, and Summative.

What are the six basic guidelines to follow when assessing a child? ›

Parents' capacities are detailed across the six areas identified in the parenting capacity domain of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families: basic care; ensuring safety; emotional warmth; stimulation; guidance and boundaries; and stability.

What is the purpose for assessing young children? ›

The purpose of assessment in early childhood is to determine students' strengths and set goals for instruction.

What are the 4 main types of assessment tools used in a preschool classroom? ›

A variety of assessment tools and approaches, including rating scales, checklists, norm-referenced tests, portfolios, and observations, can be used to learn more about the child's strengths and challenges.

What are the examples of assessment? ›

For example, research papers, exams, oral presentations, and individual creative or performance projects can be and have been assessed at the course level, in some cases even for the purpose of department/program-level assessment.

What are the main purposes of assessment? ›

This article argues that each of the three basic purposes of assessment, assessment to support learning; assessment for accountability; assessment for certification, progress, and transfer need to enjoy appropriate attention to support quality education

education
Teacher education or teacher training refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community.
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Teacher_education
.

What are the five purposes of assessment? ›

Assessment is used to:
  • inform and guide teaching and learning. A good classroom assessment plan gathers evidence of student learning that informs teachers' instructional decisions. ...
  • help students set learning goals. ...
  • assign report card grades. ...
  • motivate students.

What are the 7 assessment methods? ›

Assessment Methods – What Exactly Are They?
  • Observation.
  • Professional Discussion.
  • Questioning.
  • Projects and Assignments.
  • RPL (Recognition of Prior Learning)
  • Witness Testimony.
  • Work Products.

What are the 3 main types of assessment? ›

Classroom assessment is generally divided into three types: assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning.
  • Assessment for Learning (Formative Assessment) ...
  • Assessment of Learning (Summative Assessment) ...
  • Comparing Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning. ...
  • Assessment as Learning.

What are the 5 areas of assessment? ›

There are five main areas that assessment reporting should cover.
...
Assessing Assessment: Five Keys to Success
  • Learning Outcomes. ...
  • Assessable Outcomes. ...
  • Assessment Alignment. ...
  • Assessment Planning. ...
  • Student Experience.
22 Apr 2013

What are the important steps consider for complete an assessment on a child? ›

Stages of the Assessment Process
  • Stage 1: Child-Find/case finding. ...
  • Stage 2: Developmental screening. ...
  • Stage 3: Diagnosis. ...
  • Stage 4: Individual planning of programs and interventions. ...
  • Stage 5: Program monitoring. ...
  • Stage 6: Program evaluation.

What is the assessment cycle in early childhood education? ›

Good assessment follows an intentional and reflective process of design, implementation, evaluation, and revision. The Assessment Cycle relies on four simple but dynamic words to represent this process: Plan-Do-Check-Act.

What are the 4 principles of assessment? ›

Clause 1.8 in the Standards states the four principles of assessment are:
  • Fairness.
  • Flexibility.
  • Validity.
  • Reliability.
14 May 2021

What are benefits of assessment? ›

The many benefits of using effective assessment for learning include:
  • Improved relationships between teachers and students.
  • Improved attainment and achievement.
  • Improved confidence, resilience, and self-esteem amongst learners.
  • Improved classroom culture and teaching and learning environments.
28 Feb 2022

What are assessment tools? ›

Assessment tools aid in assessing and evaluating student learning and can provide different options to assess students beyond the traditional exam. Several tools are available including grading rubrics , Canvas Assignments , plagiarism detection, self-assessment, and peer assessment

peer assessment
Peer assessment or peer review provides a structured learning process for students to critique and provide feedback to each other on their work. It helps students develop lifelong skills in assessing and providing feedback to others, and also equips them with skills to self-assess and improve their own work.
https://teaching.cornell.edu › peer-assessment
, surveys, and classroom polling.

How do teachers assess children's learning? ›

The on-going assessments are used to support children's progress. Progress is assessed using a wide range of evidence including questioning, discussion, analysis of work , written and oral feedback, observations, self-reflection and peer reflection.

Why is assessment important in early years? ›

​Assessment is carried out to see what children and young people know, understand and are able to do. Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and involving parents, children and young people in learning.

What are assessment methods? ›

Assessment methods define the nature of the assessor actions and include examine, interview, and test. The examine method is the process of reviewing, inspecting, observing, studying, or analyzing one or more assessment objects (i.e., specifications, mechanisms, or activities).

What is the best assessment method? ›

Formative Assessment is the most powerful type of assessment for improving student understanding and performance.

What are common assessments? ›

Common assessment is a test that numerous teachers collaborate on to measure the performance of all students across different sections or classrooms. Common assessments are used to measure students' performance consistently and fairly, ensuring that all students have an equal chance of succeeding in critical subjects.

Why do teachers use assessments? ›

Based on teachers' classroom activities, four traditional reasons were given for why teachers assess—namely, to (1) determine students' current status, (2) monitor students' progress, (3) assign grades, and (4) determine a teacher's own instructional effectiveness.

What do we mean by assessment? ›

What is Assessment? While one can find many definitions of assessment, generally speaking, assessment can be considered the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational

educational
Teacher education or teacher training refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community.
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Teacher_education
programs and services undertaken for the purpose of quality improvement, planning, and decision-making.

What are the 2 purposes of assessment? ›

Assessment OF learning measures what and how well the students have learned at the end of instruction. It certifies learning and measures students' overall achievement/proficiency. It determines whether learning goals and outcomes have been achieved. Summative assessments serve the purpose of assessment OF learning.

How do we assess learning? ›

How to Assess Students' Learning and Performance
  1. Creating assignments.
  2. Creating exams.
  3. Using classroom assessment techniques.
  4. Using concept maps.
  5. Using concept tests.
  6. Assessing group work.
  7. Creating and using rubrics.

What are the five assessment techniques? ›

  • Ethical considerations.
  • Five assessment methods.
  • Self-Assessment. Testing. Conversations. Setting Tasks. Observation.
  • Children Lead Assessment. The Adult Leads Assessment.

What are the 10 principles of assessment for learning? ›

Principles of Assessment
  • Introduction. ...
  • Principles.
  • Assessment will be valid. ...
  • Assessment will be reliable. ...
  • Assessment will be equitable. ...
  • Assessment will be explicit and transparent. ...
  • Assessment will support the student learning process. ...
  • Assessment will be efficient.
11 Nov 2019

What are the 2 types of assessment? ›

There are two main types of assessment, each occurring at different points in the learning process: formative, which occurs both before and during the learning process, and summative, which occurs at the end of key segments in a learning cycle or the end of the learning process.

What are the 3 assessment tools? ›

Three Types of Assessment
  • Type 1 - Assessment of Learning. Assessment of learning summarises what students know, understand and can do at specific points in time. ...
  • Type 2 - Assessment as learning. ...
  • Type 3 - Assessment for learning.

What is effective assessment? ›

Effective assessment demonstrates the knowledge, skills and strategies, and attitudes of each student and the progress the student is making, rather than simply identifying deficits in learning.

What are the key features of assessment? ›

Five Essential Features of Assessment for Learning
  • Coherence With the Enacted Curriculum. ...
  • Items and Tasks that Support Deeper Thinking. ...
  • Results that are at the Right Grain Size to Support Useful Feedback. ...
  • Results that are Timely. ...
  • Results that Inform Instruction.
21 Mar 2019

What are the elements of assessment? ›

There are three key elements of Assessment for Learning: assess, diagnose, and remediate.

What are the six 6 steps in the assessment process? ›

  1. Step 1: Develop SLOs/POs. • A statement.
  2. Step 2: Identify methods and measures learning. • We are already and always assessing how we are doing and/or. ...
  3. Step 3: Determine criteria for success.
  4. Step 4: Collect and analyze data.
  5. Step 5: Plan and execute improvement actions. ...
  6. Step 6: Document assessment activities.
20 Sept 2017

What are the 3 stages of assessment? ›

  • 3 Step Assessment Process*
  • Step One: Outcomes.
  • Step Two: Information (Evidence)
  • Step Three: Action.

What are three stages of assessment? ›

In a three-stage assessment consultation, information is divided into three distinct sections – clinical, personal and contextual (i.e. environmental).

What techniques do early childhood teachers use in their assessment activities? ›

Methods appropriate to educators

educators
Teacher education or teacher training refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community.
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Teacher_education
' assessment of young children, therefore, include results of their observations of children, clinical interviews, collections of children's work samples, and children's performance on authentic activities.

What is summative assessment in early childhood? ›

A summative assessment builds a picture of the child progress over time, through the evidence you have collected. The Learning Outcomes provides key reference points in which a child's progress can be identified and documented and shows an overall picture of a child's learning journey.

What is assessment tools development? ›

An assessment tool includes the following components—context and conditions of assessment, tasks to be administered to the student, an outline of the evidence to be gathered from the candidate and evidence criteria used to judge the quality of performance (i.e. the assessment decision-making rules).

Why is observation and assessment important? ›

Observation and assessment is an effective way to understand children's learning and development. Using observation in this way is good practice. Young children's learn- ing is evident in their play and interaction.

What is formal assessment in early childhood education? ›

Assessment information can be used to make instructional changes and curriculum adjustments. Instructors assess their children both informally and formally. Formal Assessments are pre-planned, prescribed i.e. may include time limits, instructional and scoring procedures, and administration guidelines.

What is developmentally appropriate assessment? ›

A developmental assessment for children under age 3 is an attempt to assess various aspects of the child's functioning, including areas such as cognition, communication, behavior, social interaction, motor and sensory abilities, and adaptive skills.

What is authentic assessment in early childhood education? ›

Authentic assessment is an ongoing process of evaluating a child's development. It also includes planning and implementing activities to support better outcomes for children. Authentic assessment happens in familiar settings, with familiar people, and it happens over time.

What are the 3 types of assessment? ›

Assessment is integral to the teaching

teaching
Teacher education or teacher training refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community.
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Teacher_education
–learning process, facilitating student learning and improving instruction, and can take a variety of forms. Classroom assessment is generally divided into three types: assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning.

Which is the main purpose of assessment? ›

The main purpose of assessment is. Solution : Assessment helps to measure the achievement of learners or how much they have learnt during a course or term.

What is the importance of assessment? ›

Assessment plays an important role in the process of learning and motivation. The types of assessment tasks that we ask our students to do determine how students will approach the learning task and what study behaviours they will use.

How do teachers assess children's learning? ›

The on-going assessments are used to support children's progress. Progress is assessed using a wide range of evidence including questioning, discussion, analysis of work , written and oral feedback, observations, self-reflection and peer reflection.

What are the five purposes of assessment? ›

Assessment purpose triangle. This graphical aid of the assessment purpose triangle depicts each of the basic purposes of assessment on opposing sides: assessment to support learning; assessment for accountability; assessment for certification, progress, and transfer.

What are the 4 principles of assessment? ›

Clause 1.8 in the Standards states the four principles of assessment are:
  • Fairness.
  • Flexibility.
  • Validity.
  • Reliability.
14 May 2021

What are assessment tools? ›

Assessment tools aid in assessing and evaluating student learning and can provide different options to assess students beyond the traditional exam. Several tools are available including grading rubrics , Canvas Assignments , plagiarism detection, self-assessment, and peer assessment

peer assessment
Peer assessment or peer review provides a structured learning process for students to critique and provide feedback to each other on their work. It helps students develop lifelong skills in assessing and providing feedback to others, and also equips them with skills to self-assess and improve their own work.
https://teaching.cornell.edu › peer-assessment
, surveys, and classroom polling.

What techniques do early childhood teachers use in their assessment activities? ›

Methods appropriate to educators

educators
Teacher education or teacher training refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community.
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Teacher_education
' assessment of young children, therefore, include results of their observations of children, clinical interviews, collections of children's work samples, and children's performance on authentic activities.

What is a formative assessment example? ›

Examples of formative assessments include asking students to: draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of a topic. submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lecture. turn in a research proposal for early feedback.

What is a performance assessment? ›

Performance Assessment: An approach to educational assessment that requires students to directly demonstrate what they know and are able to do through open-ended tasks such as constructing an answer, producing a project, or performing an activity.

What are examples of assessments? ›

Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments
FormativeSummative
In-class discussionsInstructor-created exams
Clicker questionsStandardized tests
Low-stakes group workFinal projects
Weekly quizzesFinal essays
3 more rows

What is the best assessment method? ›

Formative Assessment is the most powerful type of assessment for improving student understanding and performance.

What is methods of assessment? ›

Assessment Methods

Examine method: The process of reviewing, inspecting, observing, studying, or analyzing one or more assessment objects (i.e., specifications, mechanisms, or activities). The purpose of the examine method is to facilitate assessor understanding, achieve clarification, or obtain evidence.

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